МІНІСТЕРСТВО ОСВІТИ І НАУКИ УКРАЇНИ
ДНІПРОДЗЕРЖИНСЬКИЙ ІНДУСТРІАЛЬНИЙ КОЛЕДЖ
Державного вищого навчального закладу
«Український державний хіміко-технологічний університет »
Затверджую Заступник директора з навчальної роботи
______________С.О. Стоянова
«______»___________2019 року
Методичний посібник
з іноземної мови
(за професійним спрямуванням)
для студентів III курсу
спеціальності
161 Хімічні технології та інженерія
(спеціалізація «Виготовлення тугоплавких неметалевих
і силікатних матеріалів і виробів»)
Розробила викладач
Пухальська Д.Л.
Розглянуто і ухвалено
на засіданні комісії гуманітарних та соціальних дисциплін
протокол № 6
від « 16 » січня 2019р.
Голова комісії
_______________Ляленко В.А.
2019
Методичний посібник складається з професійно-орієнтованих текстів за фахом «Виготовлення тугоплавких неметалевих і силікатних матеріалів і виробів» та тестових завдань до них.
Методичний посібник складений для студентів галузі знань 16 Хімічна та біоінженерія, спеціальності 161 Хімічні технології та інженерія (спеціалізація «Виготовлення тугоплавких неметалевих і силікатних матеріалів і виробів»).
Зміст
Cement – Цемент…………………………………………………………………………. 4
History of Cement - Історія цементу...................................................................................5
Portland Cement - Портландський цемент….…………………………………………….6
Types of Portland Cement - Види Портландського цементу…………………………….8
Uses of Portland Cement - Використання Портландського цементу…………………..10
Mortars - Будівельні розчини…………………………………………………………… 11
Lime Mortars - Вапняні розчини……………………………………………………….. 13
Hydraulic and Non-Hydraulic Lime Mortars - Гідравлічні та негідравлічні вапняні розчини…………………………………………………………………………………... 14
Cement and Cement Lime Mortars - Цементні та цементо-вапняні розчини………….16
Why Use Lime Mortar Instead of Cement Mortar? - Чому краще використовувати вапняний розчин замість цементного розчину?.............................................................17
Concrete – Бетон………………………………………………………………………….19
Mixing Concrete - Змішування бетону………………………………………………….21
Properties of Concrete - Властивості бетону……………………………………………23
Uses of Concrete - Використання бетону……………………………………………… 25
History of Reinforced Concrete - Історія залізобетону………………………………….26
Reinforced Concrete – Залізобетон………………………………………………………28
Brick – Цегла……………………………………………………………………………. 29
Uses of Brick - Використання цегли…………………………………………………….31
Sand – Пісок………………………………………………………………………………32
Uses of sand - Використання піску……………………………………………………...33
Clay – Глина…………………………………………………………………………….. 35
Ceramics – Кераміка…………………………………………………………………….. 36
Properties of ceramics - Властивості кераміки………………………………………….38
History of Ceramics - Історія кераміки…………………………………………………..39
Manufacture of ceramics – Виробництво кераміки……………………………………..40
Uses of Ceramics - Використання кераміки…………………………………………….42
Glass – Скло………………………………………………………………………………43
Список використаної літератури……………………………………………………….47
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Cement
In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term “opus caementicium” to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as “cement”.
Cement used in construction is characterized as hydraulic (artificial) or non-hydraulic (natural). Hydraulic cements (Portland cement) harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur independently of the mixture's water content; they can harden even underwater or when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous cement powder is mixed with water produces hydrates that are not water-soluble. Non-hydraulic cements (gypsum plaster) must be kept dry in order to retain their strength.
Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the start of the Industrial Revolution, driven by three main needs: hydraulic cement render (stucco) for finishing brick buildings in wet climates; hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works in contact with sea water; development of strong concretes.
1. masonry resembling modern concrete
2. crushed rock with burnt lime
3. pulverized brick additives
4. hydrates that are not water-soluble
5. hydraulic cement render (stucco)
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History of Cement
There are two groups of cement: natural and artificial. Natural cement consists mainly of lime, derived from limestone and often combined with volcanic ash or clay. It formed the basis of most civil engineering until the eighteenth century, when the first artificial cements were developed.
The earliest manmade cement, called hydraulic lime, was developed in 1756, when an English engineer named John Smeaton needed a strong material to rebuild the Eddystone lighthouse off the coast of Devon. Smeaton invented a method of combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced “artificial cement”. During the early nineteenth century several other Englishmen contributed to the refinement of artificial cement, most notably Joseph Aspdin and Isaac Charles Johnson. In 1824 Aspdin took out a patent on an artificial blend of limestone and clay which he called Portland cement because it was in color similar to Portland stone, a type of building stone that was quarried on the English Isle of Portland. However, Aspdin's product was not as strong as that produced in 1850 by Johnson, whose formula served as the basis of the Portland cement that is still widely used today. Concrete made with Portland cement is considered superior to that made with natural cement because it is stronger, more durable, and of more consistent quality.
1. It formed the basis of most civil engineering until the eighteenth century
2. hydraulic lime
3. a method of combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture
4. contributed to the refinement of artificial cement
5. it was in color similar to Portland stone
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Portland Cement
Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450 °C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of cement. Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco and most non-specialty grout. Portland cement is "hydraulic cement" (cement that not only hardens by reacting with water but also forms a water-resistant product). The low cost and widespread availability of the limestone, shale, and other naturally occurring materials make Portland cement one of the lowest-cost materials widely used over the last century throughout the world. The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete, a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building material.
1. a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate
2. calcium oxide, or quicklime
3. most non-specialty grout
4. cement that not only hardens by reacting with water but also forms a water-resistant product
5. one of the lowest-cost materials
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Types of Portland Cement
There are three types of Portland cement:
1) Rapid-Hardening or High-Early-Strength Portland cement. This is true Portland cement. Its chief characteristic is the comparative rapidity with which it gains in strength in the early stages of hydration. Rapid-hardening cement can be employed in cold weather, as it is less liable than ordinary cement to damage from frost.
2) White Portland cement. The chemical composition and characteristics of white Portland cement are similar to those of ordinary Portland cement except that the latter is of a grey colour. The colour of white cement is due to the raw materials used and special precautions taken in its production. The materials are pure limestone and china white clay, the iron oxide content being less than 1 per cent. White cement is more expensive than ordinary cement. It is used in places where, for ornamental purposes, the white colour is desirable.
3) Portland Blast-Furnace cement. This is a mixture of ordinary Portland cement and blast-furnace slag. The slag is mixed with ordinary cement clinker and passed to a ball mill for thorough incorporation and fine grinding. The proportion of slag must not exceed 65 per cent, and that of Portland cement, clinker not less than 35 per cent.
1. Rapid-Hardening or High-Early-Strength Portland cement
2. except that the latter is of a grey colour.
3. pure limestone and china white clay
4. the iron oxide content being less than 1 per cent
5. passed to a ball mill for thorough incorporation and fine grinding
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Portland cement is simply a mixture of limestone and clay heated in a kiln to 1400 to 1600 degrees centigrade.
Portland cement is manufactured commonly by either of two processes: the wet and the dry. The dry process consists of the following steps: 1) grinding of dry raw materials separately; 2) proportioning; 3) pulverising of raw materials together; 4) burning the clinker; 5) cooling and seasoning the clinker; 6) addition of materials for control of set; 7) grinding of clinker to fine powder; 8) storage in bins for package or bulk shipment. In wet process the steps are: 1) marl is stored in form of thin mud in vats; 2) clay or argillaceous material reduced to fine powder; 3) ingredients proportioned; 4) ingredients mixed through pug mill; 5) burned in kiln; 6) clinker cooled and seasoned; 7) materials added to control time or rate of setting; 8) clinker reduced to powder; 9) storage.
Clinker is lumps or nodules, usually 3–25 mm in diameter, ground into a fine powder with small amounts of gypsum to avoid flash setting. Without the gypsum, the material is ground clinker and not Portland cement.
1. storage in bins for package or bulk shipment
2. marl is stored in form of thin mud in vats
3. clay or argillaceous material reduced to fine powder
4. ingredients mixed through pug mill
5. with small amounts of gypsum to avoid flash setting
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Uses of Portland Cement
The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once hardened, can become a structural element. Users may be involved in the factory production of pre-cast units, such as panels, beams, road furniture, or may make cast-in-situ concrete such as building superstructures, roads, dams. These may be supplied with concrete mixed on site, or may be provided with "ready-mixed" concrete made at permanent mixing sites. Portland cement is also used in mortars (with sand and water only) for plasters and screeds, and in grouts (cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to consolidate foundations, road-beds, etc.). When water is mixed with Portland cement, the product sets in a few hours and hardens over a period of weeks. These processes can vary widely depending upon the mix used and the conditions of curing of the product, but a typical concrete sets in about 6 hours and develops a compressive strength of 8 MPa in 24 hours.
1. may make cast-in-situ concrete
2. These may be supplied with concrete mixed on site
3. "ready-mixed" concrete made at permanent mixing sites
4. for plasters and screeds
5. cement/water mixes squeezed into gaps to consolidate foundation
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Mortars
Mortar is a workable paste used to bind construction blocks together and fill the gaps between them. The blocks may be stone, brick, cinder blocks, etc. Mortar becomes hard when it sets, resulting in a rigid aggregate structure. Modern mortars are typically made from a mixture of sand, a binder such as cement or lime, and water. The cementing material is most important in determining the characteristics of the mortar. The usual cementing materials used for constructional work are hydraulic limes or Portland cement. Clean, sharp pit sand is the best aggregate. Old bricks, burnt ballast or stones ground in a mortar mill may be used as substitutes for sand.
Mortars may be classified as follows: cement mortars, cement-lime mortars and lime mortars. The factors governing the choice of mortars for various purposes are: strength as being a main factor determining the strength of the wall; porosity and capillary characteristics as affecting the rain-excluding properties and durability of the wall; content of soluble salts which determines the possibility to destruction of the masonry or brickwork.
The functions of mortar are as follows: to distribute the pressure throughout the brickwork; to adhere and bind together the bricks; to act as a non-conductor and prevent the transmission of heat, sound, and moisture from one side of wall to the other.
1. The blocks may be stone, brick, cinder blocks
2. a rigid aggregate structure
3. Clean, sharp pit sand is the best aggregate
4. Old bricks, burnt ballast or stones ground in a mortar mill
5. the rain-excluding properties and durability of the wall
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Lime Mortars
Lime mortar is a type of mortar composed of quick lime and an aggregate such as sand, mixed with water. It is one of the oldest known types of mortar, dating back to the 4th century B.C. and widely used in Ancient Rome and Greece, when it largely replaced the clay and gypsum mortars common to Ancient Egyptian construction.
With the introduction of ordinary Portland cement during the 19th century the use of lime mortar in new constructions gradually declined, largely due to Portland’s ease of use, quick setting and compressive strength. However the soft, porous properties of lime mortar provide certain advantages when working with softer building materials such as natural stone and terracotta. For this reason, while Portland cement continues to be commonly used in brick and concrete construction, in the repair of older, stone-built structures and the restoration of historical buildings the use of Portland cement has largely been discredited.
Despite its enduring utility over many centuries, lime mortar's effectiveness as a building material has not been well understood; time-honoured practices were based on tradition, folklore and trade knowledge, vindicated by the vast number of old buildings that remain standing. Only the experience of the last few decades has provided a scientific understanding of its remarkable durability.
1. the use of lime mortar in new constructions gradually declined
2. Despite its enduring utility over many centuries
3. time-honoured practices were based on tradition, folklore and trade knowledge
4. vindicated by the vast number of old buildings that remain standing
5. Only the experience of the last few decades has provided a scientific understanding of its remarkable durability.
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Hydraulic and Non-Hydraulic Lime Mortars
Hydraulic limes set under water, and non-hydraulic limes need air to carbonate and set. For hydraulic lime mortars, the lime is obtained from lime stone containing impurities. A non-hydraulic lime is produced from high purity calcium lime stones. In the past, countless lime kilns all over countries, such as Britain, burnt lime stones of varying qualities - many of these lime stones containing impurities. The lime thus having varying degrees of hydraulicity, making them unsuitable for today’s industrial processes but due to its water resistance suitable for building. Most of those kilns ceased production as Portland cement gained widespread use replacing hydraulic lime. Today mainly non-hydraulic limes for lime plasters are produced and a very small number of kilns are still producing hydraulic lime for the building industry to standards which are now expected of any building material.
Hydraulic lime mortars should be used within an hour after being mixed. These are excellent mortars for all purposes and are particularly suited for work below the ground level and in exposed positions.
Non-hydraulic lime mortars must be well slaked before use. These mortars are not suitable for work below ground level, especially if the ground is water-logged.
1. non-hydraulic limes need air to carbonate and set
2. the lime is obtained from lime stone containing impurities
3. A non-hydraulic lime is produced from high purity calcium lime stones.
4. but due to its water resistance suitable for building
5. work below the ground level and in exposed positions
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Cement and Cement Lime Mortars
Cement mortar is stronger than lime mortar and is used in the construction of piers and load-bearing walls; it is also employed for work below ground level and for external walls. Cement mortar is now extensively used during winter, owing to its relatively quick-setting property. Cement mortar is created by mixing Ordinary Portland cement, hydrated lime, and sand with water, and must be used immediately after mixing. It was invented in 1794 by Joseph Aspdin and patented on 18 December 1824, largely as a result of various scientific efforts to develop stronger mortars than existed at the time. It was made popular during the late nineteenth century, and owing to the First World War, it had by 1930 superseded lime mortar for new construction. The main reasons for this were that Portland cement sets hard and quickly, allowing a faster pace of construction, and requires fewer skilled workers.
Cement-lime mortar is a mixture of lime, cement and sand. It is usual to mix the lime mortar and then to gauge this mixture with the necessary proportion of Portland cement immediately before the mortar is required for use. Only non-hydraulic lime should be used for this class of mortar. The addition of cement increases the hydraulicity of the mortar, its strength and the rate of hardening.
1. is used in the construction of piers and load-bearing walls
2. it is also employed for work below ground level and for external walls
3. to develop stronger mortars than existed at the time
4. allowing a faster pace of construction, and requires fewer skilled workers
5. then to gauge this mixture with the necessary proportion of Portland cement
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Cement mortar produces the strongest brickwork. Lime mortar is not as strong in compression as cement mortar, but both are sufficiently strong for construction of non-high-rise domestic properties. Lime mortar does not adhere as strongly to masonry as cement-mortar. This is an advantage with softer types of masonry, where use of cement in many cases eventually results in cement pulling away some masonry material when it reaches the end of its life. Under cracking conditions, cement mortar breaks, whereas lime often produces numerous microcracks if the amount of movement is small. These microcracks recrystallise through the action of 'free lime' effectively self-healing the affected area. Historic buildings are frequently constructed with relatively soft masonry units (e.g. soft brick and many types of stone), and minor movement in such buildings is quite common due to the nature of the foundations. This movement breaks the weakest part of the wall, and with cement mortar this is usually the masonry. When lime mortar is used, the lime is the weaker element, and the mortar cracks in preference to the masonry. This results in much less damage, and is relatively simple to repair. Scrapped lime mortar is simply chalk and sand, which can be returned as normal constituents of soil. Cement mortar on the other hand presents a disposal issue.
1. but both are sufficiently strong for construction of non-high-rise domestic properties
2. Lime mortar does not adhere as strongly to masonry as cement-mortar.
3. the mortar cracks in preference to the masonry
4. Scrapped lime mortar is simply chalk and sand
5. Cement mortar on the other hand presents a disposal issue.
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Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed), the perfect passive participle of "concrescere", from "con-" (together) and "crescere" (to grow).
Concrete is a hardened building material created by combining a chemically inert mineral aggregate (usually sand, gravel, or crushed stone), a binder (natural or synthetic cement), chemical additives, and water. Although people commonly use the word "cement" as a synonym for concrete, the terms in fact denote different substances: cement, which encompasses a wide variety of fine-ground powders that harden when mixed with water, represents only one of several components in modern concrete. As concrete dries, it acquires a stone-like consistency that renders it ideal for constructing roads, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, factories, airports, railroads, waterways, mass transit systems, and other structures. Concrete is the most-used man-made product in the world.
The words cement and concrete are both of Latin origin, reflecting the likelihood that the ancient Romans were the first to use the substances. Many examples of Roman concrete construction remain in the countries that encircle the Mediterranean, for example, the Coliseum, the Pantheon and the Baths of Caracalla in Rome, Italy.
1. the perfect passive participle
2. cement, which encompasses a wide variety of fine-ground powders
3. As concrete dries, it acquires a stone-like consistency
4. Concrete is the most-used man-made product in the world.
5. reflecting the likelihood that the ancient Romans were the first to use the substances
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There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main ingredients below.
"Aggregate" consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally coarse gravel or crushed rocks, bricks, stones, such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand and pumice.
"Cement", commonly Portland cement, and other cementation materials such as fly ash and slag cement, serves as a binder for the aggregate. Water is then mixed with this dry composite, which produces a semi-liquid that workers can shape (typically by pouring it into a form). The concrete solidifies and hardens to rock-hard strength through a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material.
"Chemical admixtures" are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may speed or slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties.
"Reinforcements" are often added to concrete. Concrete can be formulated with high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). Concrete can be damaged by many processes, such as the freezing of trapped water.
1. stones, such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand and pumice
2. a semi-liquid that workers can shape
3. creating a robust stone-like material
4. with high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength
5. the freezing of trapped water
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Mixing concrete is most important that the materials shall be thoroughly mixed in correct proportion. The mixing should be continued until the concrete is of a uniform colour and consistency. Concrete is now chiefly produced by mechanical mixing except where only small quantities are required. Machine-mixing is faster and cheaper than hand-mixing, and it generally produces a more thorough mix having additional strength. For this reason the concrete mixer was invented. A concrete mixer is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens. Batch Mixers, which are portable, include the tilting drum and closed drum types. Each is usually driven by either a petrol or oil engine or an electric motor.
An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete by hand. The mixing should never be carried out on the bare ground. This is usually done in a wheelbarrow; however, several companies have recently begun to sell modified tarps for this purpose.
1. it generally produces a more thorough mix having additional strength
2. homogeneously combines cement, aggregate such as sand or gravel, and water
3. For smaller volume works portable concrete mixers are often used
4. Batch Mixers, which are portable, include the tilting drum and closed drum types.
5. driven by either a petrol or oil engine or an electric motor
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Properties of Concrete
Concrete consists of a matrix, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate thoroughly mixed with water. In general, a good concrete is required to be hard, strong, durable, dense, non-porous, fire-resisting and economical, although for certain structures, such as internal partitions, strength and impermeability are not necessary requirements where porous concrete may be desirable on account of its lightness and sound-insulating properties. The characteristics of concrete are influenced by the quality of the materials, grading of the aggregates, proportioning, amount of water used, and workmanship. The variation in the size of the aggregates (known as grading) should be such that the fine aggregate will fit into the spaces between the coarse aggregate to leave a minimum percentage of voids to be filled by the matrix in cementing the whole mass together. Adequate grading is economical, as less cement is needed when the aggregates are well graded. A mixture which is too rich in cement may shrink excessively. It is most important to appreciate that the strength of mortar depends very largely upon the amount of water used in relation to the cement; and excess of water results in a considerable reduction in strength. Just sufficient water should be added to make the mix reasonably plastic and workable.
1. to be hard, strong, durable, dense, non-porous, fire-resisting and economical
2. porous concrete may be desirable on account of its lightness and sound-insulating properties
3. as less cement is needed when the aggregates are well graded.
4. A mixture which is too rich in cement may shrink excessively.
5. excess of water results in a considerable reduction in strength
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Concrete has been used for construction since ancient times. Modern day concrete application include dams, bridges, swimming pools, homes, streets, patios, basements, balustrades, plain cement tiles, mosaic tiles, pavement blocks, kerbs, lamp-posts, drain covers, benches and so on.
Concrete has long been used for the foundations of structures of all kinds, and for filling in the spandrils of arches and backs of walls. Of late years, as the material has improved, it has been employed for many other purposes. The walls of ordinary houses, as well as the more massive walls of engineering structures, are now frequently built in concrete, either in continuous mass or in blocks. Concrete is also used for walls in the form of slabs fitted into timber quartering; and in hollow blocks, something like those of terracotta, filled in with inferior material. This material is also adapted for arches, for stairs, for flooring of different kinds, and even for roofs. It can easily be made in slabs well fitted for paving, and by the use of wooden moulds can readily be cast in the form of window sills, lintels, dressings of all kinds, steps, etc., and can even be used for troughs and cisterns. Drain pipes and segments of sewers are also sometimes made of concrete.
1. for filling in the spandrils of arches and backs of walls
2. for walls in the form of slabs fitted into timber quartering
3. in hollow blocks, something like those of terracotta, filled in with inferior material
4. It can easily be made in slabs well fitted for paving
5. can readily be cast in the form of window sills, lintels, dressings of all kinds
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History of Reinforced Concrete
Concrete that includes imbedded metal (usually steel) is called reinforced concrete or ferroconcrete. Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier, who received a patent in 1867. Joseph Monier was a Parisian gardener who made garden pots and tubs of concrete reinforced with an iron mesh. Joseph Monier exhibited his invention at the Paris Exposition of 1867. Besides his pots and tubs, Joseph Monier promoted reinforced concrete for use in railway ties, pipes, floors, arches, and bridges. The important point of Monier's idea was that it combined steel and concrete in such a way that the best qualities of each material were brought into play. Concrete is easily procured and shaped. It has considerable compressive or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing strength, and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength. Steel, on the other hand, is easily procurable in simple forms such as long bars, and is extremely strong. But it is difficult and expensive to work up into customized forms. Concrete had been avoided for making beams, slabs and thin walls because its lack of tensile strength doomed it to fail in such circumstances. But if a concrete slab is reinforced with a network of small steel rods on its undersurface where the tensile stresses occur, its strength will be enormously increased. Reinforced concrete combines the tensile strength of steel and the compressive strength of concrete to withstand heavy loads.
1. It has considerable compressive or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing strength
2. and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength
3. Steel, on the other hand, is easily procurable in simple forms such as long bars
4. But it is difficult and expensive to work up into customized forms.
5. the tensile strength of steel and the compressive strength of concrete
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Reinforced Concrete
Reinforced concrete is a combination of two of the strongest structural materials, concrete and steel. Consequently, the resulting material has the advantages of both. Concrete has poor elastic and tensional properties, but it is rigid, strong in compression, extremely durable under and above ground, and in the presence or absence of air and water, it increases in strength with age, it is fire resistant, and suitable for any architectural or engineering forms. Steel has great tensional, compressive and elastic properties but is not durable below ground or if exposed to moisture, it loses its strength with age or exposure to high temperature.
Reinforced concrete is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength and ductility. The reinforcement is steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is usually embedded passively in the concrete before it sets. Reinforcing schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the concrete that might cause cracking and structural failure. Many different types of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations and frames. Without reinforcement constructing modern structures with the concrete material would not be possible.
1. Consequently, the resulting material has the advantages of both.
2. Steel has great tensional, compressive and elastic properties
3. it loses its strength with age or exposure to high temperature.
4. that might cause cracking and structural failure
5. Without reinforcement constructing modern structures with the concrete material would not be possible.
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Brick
A brick is a block or a single unit of a ceramic material used in masonry construction. The brick might be made from clay, lime-and-sand, concrete, or shaped stone. Typically bricks are stacked together or laid in horizontal courses as brickwork using various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together and make a permanent structure. Bricks are typically produced in common or standard sizes in bulk quantities. They have been regarded as one of the longest lasting and strongest building materials used throughout history.
Modern clay bricks are formed in one of three processes – soft mud, dry press, or extruded. The soft mud method is the most common, as it is the most economical. It starts with the raw clay in a mix with sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency. The clay is then pressed into steel moulds with a hydraulic press. The shaped clay is then fired at 900–1000 °C to achieve strength. The dry press method is similar to the soft mud brick method, but starts with a much thicker clay mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater force in pressing and the longer burn make this method more expensive. Most structural bricks are made by the extruded method. For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with water. This mixture is forced through a die to create a long cable of material of the desired width and depth. This mass is then cut into bricks of the desired length.
1. The brick might be made from clay, lime-and-sand, concrete, or shaped stone.
2. soft mud, dry press, or extruded
3. The clay is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency.
4. so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks
5. is forced through a die to create a long cable of material of the desired width and depth
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Bricks are used for building, block paving and pavement. In Northwest Europe, bricks have been used in construction for centuries. Until recently, almost all houses were built almost entirely from bricks. Although many houses are now built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, many houses are skinned with a layer of bricks on the outside for aesthetic appeal. Engineering bricks are used where strength, low water porosity or acid resistance are needed. Bricks in the metallurgy and glass industries are often used for lining furnaces, kilns, fireboxes, and fireplaces, in particular refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral refractory bricks. This type of brick must have good thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting point, and satisfactory porosity. A refractory brick is built primarily to withstand high temperature, but will also usually have a low thermal conductivity for greater energy efficiency. Usually dense refractory bricks are used in applications with extreme mechanical, chemical, or thermal stresses, such as the inside of a wood-fired kiln or a furnace, which is subject to abrasion from wood, fluxing from ash or slag, and high temperatures. Refractory bricks should not spall under rapid temperature change, and their strength should hold up well during rapid temperature changes.
1. strength, low water porosity or acid resistance
2. in particular refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral refractory bricks
3. thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load
4. high melting point, and satisfactory porosity
5. a low thermal conductivity for greater energy efficiency
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Sand
Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but the most common constituent of sand is silica, usually in the form of quartz. Silica sand is one of the ingredients in mortar and concrete. Adhesion between the binding material and the sand is only possible if the particles of the latter are clean. The strength of mortar or concrete depends not only on the cleanliness of sand, but also the particles size and their shape. The proportion of voids is higher in sand in which the particles are of uniform size than in one which contains a variety of particles size. The greater the proportion of voids, the greater the amount of cementing material is needed to bind the sand grains together. Coarse sand produces a harsh mortar. Trouble is often caused by using too fine sand for mortar and concrete. Sand containing a large proportion of very fine particles is not suitable, as an excessive amount of water is required to make the mortar workable, and this reduces its strength and increases shrinkage. The most suitable sand for mortar and concrete consists of particles varying in size from coarse to fine, with the smaller particles packing into the voids between the larger.
1. is only possible if the particles of the latter are clean
2. The greater the proportion of voids, the greater the amount of cementing material is needed
3. Coarse sand produces a harsh mortar.
4. Trouble is often caused by using too fine sand
5. to make the mortar workable
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Uses of sand
The most common use of sand is in building materials. Sand is a major ingredient of mortar, plaster, concrete, and asphalt paving. Bricks made of clay mixed with sand are harder and will bear a greater weight than bricks composed of clay only. Sand is also used in foundry cores and molds for metal casting. Molds used in foundries for casting metal are made of sand with a clay binder. Sand is used in sandblasting. Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and polishing. Sand silicon is commonly used in water filtration systems. Raw water is passed through a slow sand filter to remove impurities and to produce water suitable for drinking, cooking, and bathing. Sand is used in the manufacture of ceramics and glass. One area of increased use of sand is in fiberglass manufacturing. Fiberglass is used to reinforce many plastic products. These products are enjoying increased use in processes where lightweight corrosion-resistant materials are desirable. Boats, cars and airplanes are some of the products finding increased uses for fiberglass. The petroleum industry also uses sand. Under pressure, sand is injected into an oil well. The sand goes into the cracks and crevices where the oil is trapped. It cements the walls of cracks, preventing to their closing down and collapsing, and facilitates the oil outcrop. When this process works, oil production can be increased greatly.
1. are harder and will bear a greater weight than bricks composed of clay only
2. Sand is also used in foundry cores and molds for metal casting.
3. Graded sand serves as an abrasive in cleaning, preparing, and polishing.
4. One area of increased use of sand is in fiberglass manufacturing.
5. preventing to their closing down and collapsing, and facilitates the oil outcrop
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Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Clay is formed over long periods of time by the gradual chemical weathering of rocks, usually silicate-bearing, by low concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted solvents. These solvents, usually acidic, migrate through the weathering rock after leaching through upper weathered layers. Depending on the content of the soil, clay can appear in various colors, from a dull gray to a deep orange-red. Primary clays, also known as kaolins, are white in colour and locate on the original place of formation. Kaolin is the product of the weathering of feldspar, either potash feldspar or soda feldspar. Clays exhibit plasticity when mixed with water in certain proportions. When dry, clay becomes firm and when fired in a kiln, permanent physical and chemical changes occur. These reactions, among other changes, cause the clay to be converted into a ceramic material. Because of these properties, clay is used for making pottery items, both utilitarian and decorative, and construction products, such as bricks, wall and floor tiles. Clay is also used in many industrial processes, such as paper making, cement production, and chemical filtering. Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain.
1. the gradual chemical weathering of rocks, usually silicate-bearing
2. low concentrations of carbonic acid and other diluted solvents
3. migrate through the weathering rock after leaching through upper weathered layers
4. clay can appear in various colors, from a dull gray to a deep orange-red
5. either potash feldspar or soda feldspar
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Ceramics
The word Ceramics is derived from the Greek word “keramos” which means potter's earth or clay. Therefore, ceramics may be considered to be material made from naturally occurring clay or earth. Scientifically, ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements. In modern applications, a broader definition applies to the term ceramics that is everything that is not a metal or organic material. Ceramics are inorganic as well as non-metallic materials which have been processed at high temperatures. The ceramic products are manufactured by the action of heat on raw materials. The main constituent of these raw materials is the chemical element silicon, together with its oxide and the compounds. There are various types of ceramic products which we have classed under four distinct categories: structural - it includes roof and floor tiles, pipes and bricks; white wares - they include objects like decorative, sanitary ware, tableware and wall tiles (the examples of white ware ceramics are stoneware, porcelain, bone china and earthenware); refractory like glass and steel building crucibles, gas fire radiant and kiln linings; technical or fine ceramics, such products include tiles applied in the space shuttle program, ballistic fortification, bio-medical implants, missile nose cones, gas burner nozzles, nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets and jet engine turbine.
1. Ceramics are inorganic as well as non-metallic materials
2. the examples of white ware ceramics are stoneware, porcelain, bone china and earthenware
3. glass and steel building crucibles, gas fire radiant and kiln linings
4. missile nose cones, gas burner nozzles
5. nuclear fuel uranium oxide pellets
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Properties of ceramics
Ceramics possess chemical, mechanical, physical, thermal, electrical, and magnetic properties that distinguish them from other materials, such as metals and plastics. Ceramics are more resistant to corrosion than plastics and metals are. Ceramics generally do not react with most liquids, gases, alkalies and acids. Сeramics have very high melting points. Ceramics are extremely strong, showing considerable stiffness under compression and bending. One of the strongest ceramics, zirconium dioxide, has bend strength similar to that of steel. Most industrial ceramics are compounds of oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen with lighter metals or semimetals. Thus, ceramics are less dense than most metals. As a result, a light ceramic part may be just as strong as a heavier metal part. Ceramics are also extremely hard, resisting wear and abrasion. The hardest known substance is diamond. Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are also extremely hard materials and are often used to cut, grind and polish metals. Certain ceramics conduct electricity. Chromium dioxide, for example, conducts electricity as well as most metals do. Other ceramics, such as silicon carbide, do not conduct electricity, but may still act as semiconductors. Other types of ceramics, such as aluminum oxide, do not conduct electricity at all and are used as insulators. Ceramics containing iron oxide can have magnetic properties. Ceramic magnets used in electric motors and electronic circuits.
1. showing considerable stiffness under compression and bending
2. compounds of oxygen, carbon, or nitrogen with lighter metals or semimetals
3. Thus, ceramics are less dense than most metals.
4. As a result, a light ceramic part may be just as strong as a heavier metal part.
5. Ceramics are also extremely hard, resisting wear and abrasion.
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Ceramics is one of the most ancient industries on the planet. Once humans discovered that clay could be dug up and formed into objects by first mixing with water and then firing, the industry was born. As early as 24,000 B.C., animal and human figurines were made from clay and fired in kilns. Almost 10,000 years later tiles were manufactured in Mesopotamia and India. The first use of functional pottery vessels for storing water and food is thought to be in 10,000 B.C. Clay bricks were also made around the same time. Glass was believed to be discovered in Egypt around 8000 B.C., when overheating of kilns produced a colored glaze on the pottery. Experts estimate that it was not until 1500 B.C. that glass was produced independently of ceramics and fashioned into separate items. In the Middle Ages, when the metal industry was in its infancy, furnaces at that time for melting the metal were constructed of natural materials. When synthetic materials with better resistance to high temperatures (called refractories) were developed in the 16th century, the industrial revolution was born. These refractories created the necessary conditions for melting metals and glass on an industrial scale, as well as for the manufacture of coke, cement, chemicals, and ceramics. Another major development occurred in the second half of the 19th century, when ceramic materials for electrical insulation were developed. The other inventions came on the scene: automobiles, radios, televisions, computers-ceramic and glass materials.
1. when overheating of kilns produced a colored glaze on the pottery
2. glass was produced independently of ceramics and fashioned into separate items
3. In the Middle Ages, when the metal industry was in its infancy
4. synthetic materials with better resistance to high temperatures
5. computers-ceramic and glass materials
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Manufacture of ceramics
Industrial ceramics are produced from powders that have been tightly squeezed and then heated to high temperatures. Traditional ceramics, such as porcelain, tiles, and pottery, are formed from powders made from minerals such as clay, talc, silica, and feldspar. Most industrial ceramics, however, are formed from highly pure powders of specialty chemicals such as silicon carbide, alumina, and barium titanate.
The minerals used to make ceramics are dug from the earth and are then crushed and ground into fine powder. Manufacturers often purify this powder by mixing it with solution and allowing a chemical precipitate to form. The precipitate is then separated from the solution, and the powder is heated to drive off impurities, including water. After purification, small amounts of wax are often added to bind the ceramic powder and make it more workable. The powder can then be shaped into different objects by various molding processes. These molding processes include slip casting, half-dry and isostatic pressing, injection molding, and extrusion. After the ceramic is molded, it is fired in a process known as densification to make the material stronger and denser. As the ceramic heats, the powder particles coalesce, the object becomes increasingly dense, shrinking by up to 20 percent of its original size.
1. that have been tightly squeezed and then heated to high temperatures
2. mixing it with solution and allowing a chemical precipitate to form
3. slip casting, half-dry and isostatic pressing, injection molding, and extrusion
4. As the ceramic heats, the powder particles coalesce
5. shrinking by up to 20 percent of its original size
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Uses of Ceramics
Ceramic materials display a wide range of properties which facilitate their use in many different product areas. Industrial ceramics are widely used to cut, shape, grind, sand, and polish cast iron, nickel-based alloys, and other metals. Ceramic materials have a wide range of electrical properties. Hence, ceramics are used as insulators, semiconductors, and conductors. Ferrites (ceramics containing iron oxide) are widely used as low-cost magnets in electric motors. Ferrites are also used in video, radio, and microwave equipment. Manganese zinc ferrites are used in magnetic recording heads, and bits of ferric oxides are the active component in a variety of magnetic recording media, such as recording tape and computer diskettes. Certain ceramics are used in the biomedical field to make synthetic bones and dental implants. Aerospace engineers use ceramic materials and cermets to make components for space vehicles. Engineers use uranium ceramic pellets to generate nuclear power. Manufacturers use ceramics to make bricks, tiles, piping, and other construction materials. Household fixtures such as sinks and bathtubs are made from feldspar- and clay-based ceramics. Because ceramic materials are harder and have better corrosion resistance than most metals, manufacturers often coat metal with ceramic enamel. Household appliances, such as refrigerators, stoves, washing machines, and dryers, are often coated with ceramic enamel.
1. to cut, shape, grind, sand, and polish cast iron, nickel-based alloys
2. ceramics are used as insulators, semiconductors, and conductors
3. are widely used as low-cost magnets in electric motors
4. Engineers use uranium ceramic pellets to generate nuclear power.
5. are harder and have better corrosion resistance than most metals
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Glass
Glass is a hard material normally fragile and transparent common in our daily life. It is composed mainly of sand (quartz) and an alkali. Quartz comprises 50-65% of the mix used to make glass. These materials at high temperature fuse together; then they are cooled rapidly forming a rigid structure, however not having enough time to form a crystalline regular structure. Depending on the final use and application the composition of the glass and cooling rate will vary to achieve the adequate properties for the specific application. These are the common ingredients to obtain glass: quartz sand (silica), sodium carbonate ("soda"), lime and several minor additives. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, soft and not very durable. Therefore lime is added increasing the hardness and chemical durability, and providing insolubility of the materials. Other materials and oxides can be added to increase properties (tinting, durability, etc.), produce different effects, colors, etc. Glass is a hard, manufactured solid with transparent properties that is used for a variety of purposes such as eyewear, bottles, windows and even certain types of furniture. Glass is used for architecture application, illumination, electrical transmission, instruments for scientific research, optical instruments, domestic tools and even textiles. Glass is frequently used to decorate living rooms, as with glass coffee tables, and can even be molded into decorative works of art. Glass does not deteriorate, corrode, stain or fade and therefore is one of the safest packaging materials.
1. Quartz comprises 50-65% of the mix used to make glass.
2. quartz sand (silica), sodium carbonate ("soda"), lime and several minor additives
3. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, soft and not very durable.
4. increasing the hardness and chemical durability, and providing insolubility of the materials
5. and therefore is one of the safest packaging materials
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Glass production involves two main methods – the float glass process, which produces sheet glass, and glassblowing which produces bottles and other containers. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process. In the 1950’s, Alastair Pilkington developed a new, patented system of making large, good quality sheets of flat glass for windows and glass sheets. Flat glass making had only been achieved with limited success up until then and was expensive. The new Pilkington method allowed glass to be made cheaply in bulk and to a good standard. Float glass is made from a mixture of sand, limestone, soda ash, dolomite, iron oxide and salt cake which are heated to a temperature of 1500 degrees Celsius. Molten glass is drawn on to molten metal and floats along the metal until cooled and cut – thus its name, float glass. The molten glass from the furnace flows on the molten tin and forms a ribbon about 6.8 mm thick. This is achieved in a continuous process using machinery which can be up to 500 m long. The machines are never switched off throughout their life span of about 10 – 15 years and produce up to 6,000 of glass per week – that’s about 6,000 km per year. It is such a specialised operation that there are only about 260 plant worldwide.
1. the float glass process, which produces sheet glass
2. glassblowing which produces bottles and other containers
3. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process.
4. a mixture of sand, limestone, soda ash, dolomite, iron oxide and salt cake
5. The molten glass from the furnace flows on the molten tin and forms a ribbon about 6.8 mm thick.
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